Strength and conditioning programs have become an important component of recreational and organized sports of all levels. It is no secret that flexibility plays a major role in such programs. With any type of exercise or sport-specific program, the SAID principle is often applied. Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands indicates that when the body is introduced to stresses and overloads of different intensities, adaptation over time will occur to overcome varying demands placed on it (Arnheim & Prentice, 1997). While engaged in certain sport-specific activities, it is important for athletic trainers and coaches to be aware of stresses that may lead to musculoskeletal injury. Therefore, proper warm-up, flexibility, agility, and cool-down exercises have been incorporated into practices and workouts to help reduce and possibly prevent the likelihood of athletic injury.
Although the majority of a workout or practice is sport-specific, it is also important that each workout session should consist of warm-up, stretching, and cool-down exercises. Warm-up exercises are designed to stimulate the cardiorespiratory system and physiologically prepare the body for functional activity or work. Warm-ups increase blood flow to the skeletal muscles and also the body's core temperature. By elevating the temperature of the 'skeletal muscles, the speed contraction and relaxation will increase, The length of stretch, or elastic properties are increased while the rate that which the muscle changes shape are decreased. Many athletic trainers would agree that the warm-up period is an important precaution against muscle soreness and unnecessary athletic injury. Typically, an athlete should not wait any longer than approximately 15 minutes before the chosen activity is initiated. Equally important is the cool-down period, which is the part of the workout when blood is returned to the heart for reoxygenation. This process prevents the pooling of blood in the extremities. Proper cool down also decreases muscle lactic acid levels more rapidly. After about a 5 to 10 minute time period, the body returns to a resting state. This prevents unnecessary muscle soreness and decreases fainting spells and dizziness after strenuous workouts. Those athletes who stretch after a workout have fewer problems with muscle soreness and also generally improve overall flexibility. The warm-up and cool-down portions are among the most important aspects of a workout. Unfortunately, both may often be cut short or left out completely.
Range of motion is the available amount of movement of a joint (Andrews, Wilk & Harrelson, 1998). This is applied in different forms to create sport-specific motion. The body's muscles and tendons are made of connective tissue that is composed primarily of collagen. Connective tissue has elastic properties, which allow elongation of the involved tissues. By considering certain biophysical factors and the properties of connective tissue, we can begin to understand why flexibility is so important. We can define flexibility as the ability of the muscles, tendons and connective tissues to lengthen through a given range of joint motion (Andrews et al., 1998). Flexibility can be affected by a variety of factors - including age and gender. Younger individuals are generally more flexible than the older population of athletes. Bone structure, soft tissue mass such as ligaments, muscles, and skin may also be affecting flexibility (Pfeiffer & Mangus, 1995). Flexibility can further be broken down into tow types: static and dynamic. Static flexibility is the passive motion of the joint by another person involved, such as an athletic trainer or physical therapist. Dynamic flexibility is obtained by muscles contracting to achieve joint range of motion.
Good flexibility is essential for optimum physical performance. While "good flexibility" may come naturally to some athletes, others may dedicate a good portion of their time and energy working to improve and maintain their level of flexibility. Athletic performance can be directly related to one¹s level of flexibility. One¹s flexibility is often measured by using a sit and reach test or by manual tests with preset guidelines. The National Athletic Testing Program uses a flexibility test as one of the components to measure athletic ability. The NATP tests are used to compare athletes nationwide and are also used to record athletic progress from test to test. Such tests are available several times a year at various schools in the area.* An athlete that has poor flexibility can expect a decline in performance capabilities. A lack of flexibility, or tightness in the involved muscle groups, may result in awkward or uncoordinated movements, predisposing one to musculoskeletal injury. Tight posterior muscles can create problems with weak anterior muscles (Bandy, Irion, & Briggler, 1997). On the other hand those individuals predisposed to excessive joint motion may also be susceptible to musculoskeletal injury. Stretching increases general flexibility. Stretching may also help reduce stress, especially in the neck and shoulders, where many people carry their tension. This comes as no surprise to coaches, physical therapists, athletic and personal trainers.
* National Athletic Testing Program (NATP) is sponsored by Montana Orthopedics & Sports Medicine and St. Vincent Outpatient Rehabilitation. For more information call 406.238.6732.
There are three general types of stretches; static, dynamic and PNF. Static stretching is one of the safest ways to stretch the involved muscle groups. After a proper warm-up, this is achieved by passively stretching the muscle or muscle groups by placing it in a maximal stretch and holding for a length of time. No pain should be involved with any type of stretch. However, mild discomfort may be associated with certain stretches. If a stretch becomes painful, one should definitely back off and not push too hard. There are many varied opinions as to how long a stretch should be held. Somewhere between 30 and 60 seconds is recommended. Results of previous studies, investigating the effects of duration of stretch, show that 30 seconds of static stretching was reported to be as effective as 60 seconds of static stretching in increasing flexibility (Bandy et al., 1997). To hold a stretch longer than that may result in reduced blood flow to the affected limb and/or joint pain. Longer time usually has no positive effect on flexibility, one shouldn't over stretch. A rest period of 15 to 45 seconds is necessary to recover from the stretch before moving on to the next set. Three to five sets is a general guideline for how many sets should be performed. Each athlete is different and will respond to specific stretches in many different ways. Therefore, the number of sets is usually left up to the athlete.
Dynamic stretching, also known as ballistic stretching, is an older technique that uses repetitive bouncing motions. This method has been used extensively to improve range of motion, but has been criticized over the years because of the increased result in muscle injury.
The forceful, jerky movement has been known to cause micro tears in the muscle fibers and increase muscle soreness and joint pain. It is recommended that one start with static stretching then move on to more sport-specific stretches or exercises. This is where agility and plyometric programs are incorporated into a practice or workout. After the muscle is warm and has completed static stretching exercises, agility and plyometric exercises can enhance overall athletic performance.
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching techniques have become popular in the last few years. This technique, which involves a combination of alternating stretches and muscle contraction, was first used by physical therapists for injury prevention and rehabilitation. Different methods including: contract-relax, hold-relax, and slow-reversal-hold-relax are common techniques used for increasing flexibility (Arnheim & Prentice, 1997). The theory behind PNF stretching is to assume the position of a specific stretch, then apply isometric contraction for approximately 6-12 seconds. This is followed by a 1-2 second break, then deeper into the stretch. The general guidelines are similar with other stretching techniques in that 3-5 sets are recommended for each muscle group. PNF uses a combination of many stretching techniques and can be a very strenuous way to achieve increases in flexibility. Because of these elements, PNF is known as the fastest way to improve general flexibility.
As with any practice schedule or workout routine, it is important that proper technique be applied to any exercise. Athletes at any level can benefit from increasing their flexibility. An individual should engage in a stretching program on a consistent basis in order for the program to be most effective. The intensity and duration of the stretching program should be increased gradually and within the athlete's ability to adapt to certain workloads. Special attention should be paid to the back and neck when stretching. Safety issues should be strictly enforced in any training environment, as to minimize levels of tissue stress and to reduce chance of injury (Arnheim & Prentice, 1997). A general flexibility program can enhance physical fitness and lead to a healthier, happier lifestyle for everyone.